WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. Vertes & Eastman (88) argue against memory consolidation during sleep, what is in opposition to Wilson & McNaughton's hypothesis (87). Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. In rats we have recorded ear movements in paradoxical sleep, which we attribute to the occurrence of auditory dreams (see Figure 9). 110. Science 1987;238:797-9. This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. (1962) clearly demonstrated that in the cat blood diastolic pressure falls deeply to around 60 mmHg, beginning as soon as the electrocorticogram starts to desynchronize. Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. 28. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. There are two kinds of vegetative components: 1. 59. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Narcolepsy. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". It is likely that even strong stimuli may be ineffective in producing an arousal during sleep if they are trivial, whereas light stimulation containing relevant information may be highly efficient. Rechtschaffen A, Buchignani C. The visual appearance of dreams. It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. 38. 63. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. 117. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. Dement WC. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. (eds.) the apparitions. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. 52. 78. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). There are other definitions of the word dream, too. We suppose, instead, inasmuch as dreams are forgotten if we are not aroused while dreaming or within ten to fifteen minutes immediately after the dream has ceased, that it may well be that dreams are forgotten because the reticular activating system is highly deactivated during desynchronized sleep and thus the memory of the dreams cannot be consolidated (110). Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. In cats desynchronized sleep appears also as tonic cortical desynchronization (figure 3) but in the hippocampus, septal area and amygdala theta waves predominate, as in rats and rabbits. Hypotheses attributing a function to dreams tend to invoke reasons not well founded and in some cases they are rather fancy or even mystic. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. 70. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. 4 According to Freud, Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. Physiology and Psychology. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. 64. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. Maquet et al. WebIn a nutshell, the theory states that the biological function of dreaming is to stimulate threatening events in order to rehearse the perception of threats and how to go about In humans, Hansotia and colleagues (34) found in humans, in accordance with our own observations in rats and cats, that oniric eye movements may be directed to one side or the other, not exclusively to one side, as stated by Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (29). (1997), in their PET studies, found a significant deactivation, in desynchronized sleep, of a large portion of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, what was found also by Madsen et al. Science 1978;201:269-72. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. Vanni-Mercier G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, Jouvet M. Eye saccade dynamics during paradoxical sleep in the cat. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). Carcione A, Santonastaso M, Sferruzza F, Riccardi I. Res Psychother. 87. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. Selective deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been found in desynchronized sleep. In some mammals only one hemisphere at a time may be in desynchronized sleep. Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. C R S Soc Biol 1978;172:9-21. The motor components of dreams are expressed as clearly different patterns, according to the dream content. It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. 1. Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. FOIA Some peculiarities of the dreams of patients with vestibular diseases. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. 84. (eds.) Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG, PET study. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). This neural activity is then interpreted by the brain as an internal activity. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. Interestingly, bilateral ablation of the frontal lobes in cats leads to deep changes of the PGO potentials in the VI cranial nerves and in the mobilization of the lateral rectus muscles during desynchronized sleep (71). Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. 34. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. 44. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. Temporal patterns of discharges of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey. Geschichte der Physiologie. They include facilitation of memory storage, Desynchronized sleep in early life may be an indicator for the degree of brain maturation and promoter of further brain maturation. Gadea-Ciria M. Plasticity of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the cat. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Front Neurol. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. 68. Web5 Theories on dreaming . Timo-Iaria C. Early research on dreaming. The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). Episodes recorded from rats frontal lobe lesions in the cat and thus will be emphasized in the are. 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